Hysteria Revista de sexualidad y cultura
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por Una Pardo Ibarra / unx
Las telenovelas, como para muchísimas otras personas especialmente en este territorio conocido como Latinoamérica, hicieron parte de mi educación sentimental, romántica y de feminidad. Razón por la que del 2014 al 2016, como artista investigadorx millenial, estuve trabajando y tensionando mi propia inconformidad por haber sido asignadx como mujer, a partir de los recuerdos, aprendizajes, sentires y saberes que la recepción telenovelera generó en mi propia construcción de feminidad y a partir de allí provocar otra relación con la telenovela, proponiéndola como un material de trabajo para activar ejercicios de reflexión, diálogo y creación. ***
unx, Quisiera ser distinta. 2023unx, Quisiera ser distinta. 2023
La telenovela es un género televisivo asociado a lxs mujeres, en términos de producción y consumo, aun cuando según diferentes estudios de recepción televisiva, afirman que aproximadamente poco menos de la mitad de lxs personxs que ven telenovelas son hombres, hecho que resalta la importancia de estudiar este fenómeno desde diferentes aproximaciones teóricas y metodológicas, en relación a dinámicas de recepción y audiencias diversas, que permitan ver otros matices respecto a qué y cómo se ha dicho sobre la telenovela, y sobre quienes la consumen.
La telenovela se remonta a la utilización de la radio por parte de grandes firmas de fabricantes y anunciantes estadounidenses, para introducir sus productos, a un amplio rango de la población, por medio de programas seriados en horarios específicos. Posteriormente los fabricantes de jabón financiaron, programas de transmisión matutina dirigidos a las mujeres trabajadoras de hogar no remuneradas y empleadxs del servicio doméstico —mientras se encuentran realizando los deberes del hogar—, a través de los cuales promocionaban sus productos, con lo cual se crean las primeras radionovelas o las soap operas, que serían el antecedente de su versión televisiva. Desde enfoques de estudios de comunicación, que entienden a lxs consumidrorxs como personxs activxs que eligen contenidos para satisfacer sus necesidades, la telenovela también se ha entendido como una respuesta a las necesidades femeninas, para contrarrestar el tedio, y el trabajo solitario que demandan las responsabilidades del hogar.
En este sentido, estas estrategias comerciales e interpretaciones teóricas, ratifican y reproducen los trabajos de cuidado y del hogar, como labores “femeninas”, nociones que están en el origen mismo de la telenovela, por lo cual podemos rastrear de qué manera sus características, formal y discursivamente, configuran ideas de feminidad. De esta forma, en la telenovela tienen centralidad las historias domésticas y románticas, presenta relevantes cargas de sentimentalismo, agonía, improbabilidad, así como simplificación, y exageración, tanto de sus personajes como de sus tramas. Tiene constantes cambios de punto de vista, se prioriza el diálogo ante la acción. Así mismo, los múltiples clímax de la historia son reflejados a la luz de la sexualidad y emoción femenina, y consecuentemente la consumación de la felicidad y la conclusión de la historia se da, alrededor del matrimonio o de la consolidación de la pareja amorosa cisheterosexual. Los escenarios donde se desarrollan las acciones son de carácter privado, por el modo con que organizan la construcción narrativa y por el universo semántico que caracteriza sus historias, donde generalmente es unx “mujer” el personaje central, quien tiene que sortear las desventuras que plantea la trama. La telenovela se define así como un producto cultural femenino.
Es necesario reflexionar qué es lo que se entiende por feminidad y cómo se caracteriza en la telenovela, pues como señala la investigadora en medios de comunicación Liv Hausken, al asumir que dichas características connotan feminidad, se podría inferir entonces que de eso se trata la feminidad. De ahí, la importancia de entender y trabajar crítica y creativamente sus contenidos y representaciones, su vinculación con el mandato cisheteropatriarcal, para desatar la relación intrínseca entre telenovela y feminidad, para evitar reforzar el binario de género y reproducir la idea estereotipada en la que la feminidad se refiere y expresa por medio de dicho conjunto de rasgos y cualidades.
En ese sentido, se hace indispensable revisar a la telenovela como un producto cultural feminizado, cuya producción y dinámicas de recepción visibilizan y naturalizan justamente, una estructura cisheteropatriarcal que ha delimitado la subjetividad e identidad de las asignadas como mujeres, a la pasividad, a la vulnerabilidad y dependencia emocional bajo la matriz del amor romántico, a concebir las demás esferas de su desempeño social como secundarias, por lo que su valor se concreta en las esferas íntimas, domésticas, e interpersonales, estructura donde su sexualidad siempre las posiciona moralmente en el mundo, y que ha relegado y naturalizado las labores de servicio y cuidado a las mujeres.
Dentro de la historia de la telenovela latinoamericana, en efecto, han habido reconfiguraciones del esquema melodramático tradicional y de esta manera de las representaciones de mujeres, así como de hombres y otrxs identidades de género y sexualidad, que han surgido y se han adaptado en el transcurso del tiempo en relación a las diferentes demandas sociales. Sin embargo, aunque, en algunas telenovelas se puede identificar en la construcción de personajes femeninos, la implementación de un discurso de género más progresista, que se aleja de los estereotipos y de su construcción maniquea, estos personajes y relatos poco convencionales de todas formas, reproducen “en mayor o menor medida el mito del amor romántico que reordena el caos y legitima el goce sexual, resguardando el ideal de familia monógama con perspectivas de descendencia” (Viveros, 2011, p.326), así como el deber ser de la feminidad.
De manera general, también podemos señalar que el tratamiento que se le da a personajes con identidades de género y sexualidades diversas, no confrontan disruptivamente los presupuestos sobre las mismas y por el contrario terminan muchas veces por reproducir estereotipos. La construcción de estos personajes y su desarrollo al interior de la trama funciona en un rol secundario en muchos casos como alivio cómico y/o como cuota políticamente correcta, pero cuyo papel y desarrollo narrativo paradójicamente adquiere relevancia en relación a la preservación de las lógicas cisheteronormadas y de las ideas de amor romántico correspondientes. No se trata entonces de representaciones que desencajen, disientan o diversifiquen los valores generales que atraviesan la historia, son más bien formas asépticas y neutralizadas de representar la “diversidad” que regulan comportamientos, identidades y subjetividades que no corresponden a lo que el contrato cisheterosexual demanda.
Al respecto, la investigadora Isis Giraldo señala que muchas de estas representaciones de mujeres con agencia y empoderadxs en las telenovelas, coinciden con una construcción post-feminista, como un enfoque mediáticamente construido de una versión mercantilizada del feminismo, y que sostiene el esencialismo del sistema sexo-género y una ideología neoliberal. Así Giraldo concluye que en esta construcción de personajes, se genera la idea de que la agencia y la autonomía por parte de ciertos personajes se deben a la superación de inequidades de género en la sociedad, lo que conlleva la idea tácita de que el feminismo ya no se necesita más, y que todo dependería de la voluntad y actitud de las mujeres en cuestión.
En ese sentido el investigador y ensayista Omar Rincón menciona que estas representaciones contemporáneas de mujeres, además de ser garantes del cuidado de la familia y los hombres, deben buscar su realización personal en el mundo de lo público, ser esposas-amantes-trabajadoras. Así que, a pesar de que dichas representaciones de mujeres se adapten al paso del tiempo, siguen configurando el poder patriarcal, así como una noción esencialista de género.
La telenovela como producto cultural negocia significados y valores de género, por esto que encuentro pertinente, de la mano de la teórica feminista Teresa De Lauretis, pensar a la telenovela como una tecnología de género. De Lauretis retoma lo que Michel Foucault denominó como tecnologías del sexo, extiende su análisis al género, y de este modo menciona que “podríamos llamar tecnología del género a, las técnicas y estrategias discursivas por las cuales es construido el género” (De Lauretis, 1989, p.19) que tienen efectos en los cuerpos, los comportamientos y las relaciones sociales.
Así, la telenovela como tecnología de género, a partir de sus diferentes elementos —personajes, historias, escenarios, musicalización, planos, montaje etc. configurados bajo la matriz melodramática, promueve representaciones de género, que a su vez están (re)produciendo el género. Participa en la naturalización, regulación y reproducción de la matriz cisheterosexual en la que el género y el sexo se definen y articulan, en una ficción esencialista binaria, así como interviene poderosamente en la producción de formas de subjetividad, que como refiere De Lauretis (1992) están moldeadas individualmente, pero que también son forzosamente sociales.
No existe una subjetividad femenina en términos de una esencia que es propia de determinados cuerpos, sino una subjetividad determinada en relación a las construcciones de género y sexualidad, una “subjetividad feminizada”, como efecto de las regulaciones y sanciones del sistema sexo-género y el régimen heterosexual. Como menciona Butler (2002) “la feminidad no es, en consecuencia, el producto de una elección, sino la cita forzosa de una norma cuya compleja historicidad es inseparable de las relaciones de disciplina, regulación y castigo” (p.66). a su vez “construye la ficción social de su propia interioridad psicológica” (Butler, 1990, p.310).
Por otra parte, y siguiendo a De Lauretis:
“La representación social de género afecta a su construcción subjetiva y que, viceversa, la representación subjetiva del género —o auto-representación— afecta a su construcción social, deja abierta una posibilidad de agencia y de auto-determinación en el nivel subjetivo e individual de las prácticas cotidianas y micropolíticas» (1989, p.15).
Es por esto que considero que las prácticas artísticas pueden desarrollar procesos críticos que nos permitan desafiar nuestro entorno cultural sus “regímenes de sentido, órdenes de representación, maneras en que el mundo es imaginado, representado e interpretado por y para nosotros” (Pollock 2007, p.47) para una incidencia en la vida cotidiana, en las prácticas, en lo personal, donde se sitúa finalmente el significado (De Lauretis, 1990).
Por tanto, cuestionar las representaciones de género en relación a la feminidad que proponen las telenovelas, no es un interés por denunciar su carácter ficticio y apelar a una “verdadera” representación de lxs mujeres, el ideal de género siempre nos excede, es así que pensar en una representación correcta de la mujer o las mujeres es un sinsentido, pues tanto las representaciones culturales como las encarnadas son construidas (Hall, 1997; Padilla de la Torre, 2002).
Por otra parte, considero que justamente el carácter maniqueo e hiperbólico de las representaciones que hace la telenovela, permite ironizarlas parodiarlas e incluso subvertirlas, y con ello desmantelar así el carácter estereotipado de estas representaciones, así como, desplegar crítica y creativamente su potencial performático. En relación a esto último es que me gustaría brevemente presentar las siguientes piezas y proyectos artísticos que han partido de visitar críticamente a la telenovela.
Maruca (la mala madre) (1987-2005), de Mónica Mayer, es una muñeca intervenida, que desde 1987, ha sido usada en performances así como en protestas feministas. Maruca tiene “un parche sobre el ojo como el famoso personaje de Catalina Creel, la mala madre en la telenovela Cuna de Lobos, para ironizar los mandatos de la maternidad y la idealización de la madre. Maruca fue utilizada en uno de los performances del grupo de arte feminista Polvo de gallina negra, en el marco del proyecto ¡Madres!, en el que nombraron como “Madre por un día”, durante el programa Nuestro mundo de Televisa, a su presentadorx Guillermo Ochoa (Mayer, 2007). Durante el performance Mayer menciona “de niñas nos dan muñecas para enseñar a ser mamás, entonces yo pienso que de grandes tenemos que tener nuestras muñecas para decirles todo lo que no les dijimos a nuestras mamás, entonces esta es mi muñeca, ustedes reconocerán bien, es la mamá mala, doña Catalina” (Polvo de gallina negra, 2015).
Mónica Mayer, Maruca (la mala madre). Fotografía Una Pardo Ibarra. 2016.
Catalina Creel, personaje de la telenovela Cuna de Lobos. Blimblog. 2016.
También vemos la apropiación de los códigos melodramáticos en la producción audiovisual de la artista mexicana Teresa Serrano. En la serie denominada Mía (1998 – 1999), realizó cuatro escenas cuyo resultado se asemeja a los códigos formales de la telenovela, y así dramatizó situaciones entre dos personxs, y las musicalizó con la balada homónima de Armando Manzanero. A través de la repetición logró desmontar este recurso audiovisual y evidenciar la manera en que culturalmente se velan y romantizan las dinámicas de violencia, acoso y posesión interpersonal.
Teresa Serrano, Mía-1. www.teresaserrano.com. 2011.
Igualmente, en Ritual (2000), Serrano recrea una escena que bien podría ser extraída de una telenovela o un docudrama, al plantearla como si estuviese descontextualizada de un relato mayor, llama la atención sobre las dinámicas cotidianas de violencia psicológica y física doméstica hacia las mujeres, sin dar concesión a justificaciones narrativas, Serrano denuncia la normalización y reproducción de la violencia patriarcal bajo la idea de amor y romance, que se da a través de la cultura popular y la producción audiovisual.
Por su parte, el artista alemán, Christian Jankowski en el 2012 presentó en la Sala de Arte Público Siqueiros, Llanto por La marcha de la humanidad, donde con el staff y el elenco de la telenovela La que no podía amar (2011), grabó una versión alterna del capítulo 202 de la historia, sustituyendo los diálogos por el llanto, como lenguaje principal.
A partir de la deconstrucción de estructuras dramáticas que negocian entre ficción y realidad, Jankowski se acerca al poder comunicativo de una de las más grandes televisoras de habla hispana, para insertarse en su estructura creativa y alterarla radicalmente hasta someter la posibilidad dramática del género de la telenovela a uno de sus más altos grados de expresión: el llanto.
Con esto Jankowski plantea un juego lingüístico con el mural de Siqueiros Llanto por la marcha de la humanidad —símbolo de la modernidad mexicana—, complejizando la idea del melodrama desde una lectura política.
Christian Jankowski, Llanto por la marcha de la humanidad. SAPS. 2012.
Christian Jankowski, Llanto por la marcha de la humanidad. SAPS. 2012.
Nicolás Marín96 artista mexicano, autonombrado Mr.Poper, retoma a personajes emblemáticos de la telenovela que hacen parte de la memoria colectiva y de la cultura, mexicana y latinoamericana con los que realiza ilustraciones digitales en las que apropia y subvierte, el sentido del discurso melodramático que representan dichos personajes, y a través de la ironía y el humor los politiza para cuestionar la cisheterosexualidad como régimen político. Así mismo sus ilustraciones son mediaciones de la teoría queer y de los feminismos. Parte clave de esta propuesta fue su circulación, que con el interés de llegar a diversidad de públicos y trascender los escenarios artísticos, se hizo en diferentes momentos, por redes sociales, en la publicación Maricarmen Zine y también en el espacio como calcomanías, pegas y afiches.
Mr.Poper, Milagros Robles Viuda de Martínez. 2015.
Soraya Montenegro Viuda de Montalbán. 2014.
Mr.Poper, Camelia Pineda. 2015.
Creo así que las anteriores propuestas de alguna manera son una forma de responder a la pregunta que tomo prestada del teórico de cultura visual W.J.T. Mitchell: “¿cuál es el papel del arte y la construcción de imágenes en una esfera pública constituida mayoritariamente por formas de espectáculos de masas y por la mediatización de la experiencia?” (2009, p.316), ya que nos muestran que el papel de la práctica artística profundiza en la relación que lxs personxs tienen con las imágenes, para comprenderlas en un sentido expandido —más allá de dos dimensiones o superficies planas y frías—, y exploran de qué manera nos constituyen cómo sujetxs y como sociedad, y a su vez procurar otras imágenes, otras ideas, otras demandas.
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***El siguiente texto es un fragmento adaptado de mi tesis de maestría titulada “En la telenovela (me) encuentro (con) “mujeres”: práctica artística y agencia frente a la producción de subjetividad femenina”, Maestría en Estudios de Arte, Universidad Iberoamericana. Para más información: https://ri.ibero.mx/handle/ibero/328
Referencias bibliográficas:
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Butler, J. (2002). Críticamente subversiva. En R. M. Mérida, Sexualidades transgresoras. Una antología de estudios queer (pp. 59-79). Barcelona: Icaria Editorial.
De Lauretis, T. (1989). La tecnología del género. Recuperado de: http://www.caladona.org/grups/uploads/2012/01/teconologias-del-genero-teresa-de- lauretis.pdf
De Lauretis, T. (1992). Alicia ya no. Feminismo, semiótica y cine. Madrid: Ediciones Cátedra S.A.
Giraldo, I. (2014). Machos y mujeres de armas tomar. Patriarcado y subjetividad femenina en la narco-telenovela colombiana contemporánea. La manzana de la discordia , 67-81.
Hall, S. (1997). Representation. Cultural representations and signifying practices. London: SAGE.
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Mitchell, W. (2009). La violencia del arte público: Haz lo que debas. En Teoría de la imagen, ensayos sobre representación verbal y visual (pp. 315-340). Madrid: Ediciones Akal.
Padilla de la Torre, M. (2002). Telenovelas e identidad de género. Un análisis entre familias aguascalentenses (tesis de maestría). Guadalajara, México: Centro Universitario de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades.
Padilla de la Torre, M. (2005). Ser mujer se aprende, enseña, disfruta y sufre. Telenovela, cultura e identidad de género. Revista Culturales, 143-176.
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Polvo de gallina negra. [Ale SA]. (2015, febrero, 26). Polvo de gallina negra. [Archivo de video]. Recuperado de https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CnFrHTykomE
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